Types of Meditation
Meditation has been characterized in many ways in the scientific literature and there is no
consensus definition of meditation. This diversity in definitions reflects the complex nature of
the practice of meditation and the coexistence of a variety of perspectives that have been adopted
to describe and explain the characteristics of the practice. Therefore, we recognize that any single
definition limits the practice artificially and fails to account for important nuances that
distinguish one type of meditation from another.
Cardoso et al. developed a detailed operational definition of meditation broad enough to
include traditional belief-based practices and those that have been developed specifically for use
in clinical settings. Using a systematic approach based on consensus techniques, they defined
any practice as meditation if it
(1) utilizes a specific and clearly defined technique
(2) involves muscle relaxation somewhere during the process
(3) involves logic relaxation (i.e., not “to intend” to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not “to intend” to judge the possible results, not “to intend” to create any type of expectation regarding the process)
(4) a selfinduced state
(5) the use of a self-focus skill or “anchor” for attention.
From a cognitive and psychological perspective, Walsh et al. defined meditation as a family of self-regulation
practices that aim to bring mental processes under voluntary control through focusing attention
and awareness. Other behavioral descriptions emphasize certain components such as relaxation,
concentration, an altered state of awareness, suspension of logical thought processes, and
maintenance of self-observing attitude. From a more general perspective, Manocha described
meditation as a discrete and well-defined experience of a state of “thoughtless awareness” or
mental silence, in which the activity of the mind is minimized without reducing the level of
alertness. Meditation also has been defined as a self-experience and self-realization exercise.
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Despite the lack of consensus in the scientific literature on a definition of meditation, most
investigators would agree that meditation implies a form of mental training that requires either
stilling or emptying the mind, and that has as its goal a state of “detached observation” in which
practitioners are aware of their environment, but do not become involved in thinking about it. All
types of meditation practices seem to be based on the concept of self-observation of immediate
psychic activity, training one’s level of awareness, and cultivating an attitude of acceptance of
process rather than content.
Meditation is an umbrella term that encompasses a family of practices that share some
distinctive features, but that vary in important ways in their purpose and practice. This lack of
specificity of the concept of meditation precludes developing an exhaustive taxonomy of
meditation practices. However, in order to systematically address the question of the state of
research of meditation practices in healthcare, we must attempt to identify the components that
are common to the many practices that are claimed to be meditation or that incorporate a
meditative component, and also clearly distinguish meditation practices from other therapeutic
and self-regulation strategies such as self-hypnosis or visualization and from other relaxation
techniques that do not contain a meditative component.
Meditation practices may be classified according to certain phenomenological characteristics:
The primary goal of practice (therapeutic or spiritual), the direction of the attention (mindfulness,
concentrative, and practices that shift between the field or background perception and experience
and an object within the field), the kind of anchor employed (a word, breath, sound, object or
sensation), and according to the posture used (motionless sitting or moving). Like other
complex and multifaceted therapeutic interventions, meditation practices involve a mixture of
specific and vaguely defined characteristics, and they can be practiced on their own or in
conjunction with other therapies. As pointed out by many authors, any attempt to create a
taxonomy of meditation only approximates the multidimensional experience of the practices.
This report is based on research conducted by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice
Center (EPC) under contract to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ),
Rockville, MD (Contract No. 290-02-0023). The findings and conclusions in this document are
those of the author(s), who are responsible for its contents, and do not necessarily represent the
views of AHRQ. No statement in this report should be construed as an official position of AHRQ
or of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
The information in this report is intended to help clinicians, employers, policymakers, and others
make informed decisions about the provision of health care services. This report is intended as a
reference and not as a substitute for clinical judgment.
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