History of Yoga
History of Yoga
The philosophy and practice of Yoga date back to ancient times, originating perhaps as early as 5,000 to 8,000 years ago. It has been argued that the rules or precepts set down in the first systematic work on Yoga, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, do not set forth a philosophy, but are practical instructions for attaining certain psychological states. It is important to acknowledge the diversity of techniques subsumed under the term “Yoga.” Over many millenia, different yogic meditative techniques had been developed and used to restore and maintain health, and to elevate self-awareness and to also transcend ordinary states of consciousness, and ultimately to attain states of enlightenment.
History of Yoga
Yogic meditative techniques have been transmitted through Kundalini yoga, Sahaja yoga, Hatha yoga and other yogic lineages. Though there are numerous styles of Yoga; the styles vary according to the emphasis and combination of four primary components: asanas, pranayamas, mantras, and the various meditation techniques. In Kundalini yoga, there are thousands of different postures, some dynamic and some static, and also thousands of different meditation techniques, many of which are disorder specific. Kundalini yoga meditation techniques are usually practiced while maintaining a straight spine, and employ a large number of specific, and highly structured breathing patterns, various eye and hand postures, and a wide variety of mantras. All of these techniques supposedly have different effects and benefits in their respective combinations.
Within Hatha yoga, many “schools” have developed, each differing slightly in its emphasis on the use of breathing and postures: in Bikram Yoga, practitioners perform the same sequence of 26 asanas in each session; in Vini Yoga, emphasis on the breath makes for a slower-paced practice. Iyengar Yoga is distinguished from other styles by its emphasis on precise structural alignment, the use of props, and sequencing of poses. There are also two Tibetan yogic practices, Tsa Lung and Trul Khor, that incorporate controlled breathing, visualization, mindfulness techniques, and postures. In Yoga, it is also believed that the practice of meditation techniques can be enhanced by the proper cleansing and conditioning of the body through the asanas and breathing exercises, or pranayama techniques (though pranayama places particular emphasis on techniques of breathing, some pranayama also employ physical movements).
History of Yoga
In addition to the schools of Yoga described above, TM® and the secular meditation techniques RR and CSM are derived from classical yogic techniques. It is important to note that the techniques in any given school or type of Yoga represent distinct interventions, in much the same way that psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, and interpersonal therapies each involve different approaches to psychotherapy.
The purpose of asanas, pranayams, and pratyahar (emancipation of the mind from the domination of the senses) is to help rid the practitioner of the distractions of body, breath, and
sensory activity and to prepare the body and mind for meditation and spiritual development.
The use of mantras is said to help cleanse and restructure the subconscious
mind, and to help prepare the conscious mind to experience the various states of superconsciousness. The more advanced Yoga practices lie in dharana (concentration), dhyana (yogic meditation) and samadhi (absorption). Concentration involves attention to a single object or place, external or internal (e.g., the space between the eyebrows, the tip of the nose, the breath, a mantra [chanted loudly, softly, or silently] or attention to all of these elements simultaneously). When the mind flows toward the object of concentration uninterruptedly and effortlessly, it is meditation. When it happens for a prolonged period of time it leads to samadhi, the comprehension of the true nature of reality that ultimately leads to enlightenment and emancipates the practitioner from the bonds of time and space.
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History of yoga
Main components: Classical Yoga is an all-encompassing lifestyle incorporating moral and ethical observances (yamas and niyamas), physical postures (asanas), breathing techniques (pranayams), and four increasingly more demanding levels of meditation (pratyahar, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi). Due to the incredible diversity of techniques in yogic meditation practice, it is impossible to describe them in adequate detail here. Instead, we have attempted to provide the reader with a very general description of the main components of many yogic meditation techniques.
The most common translation of “asana” is “posture” or “pose” and it refers to both specific postures for gaining greater strength and flexibility and those used specifically to help achieve proper concentration for meditation. Asanas are practiced either standing, sitting, supine, or prone. The postures for strength and flexibility take each joint in the body through its full range of motion, stretching, strengthening, and balancing each body part. Depending on the particular yogic technique one follows and the individual level of practice, each asana is held anywhere from a few breath cycles (as long as 2 minutes) to as long as 10 minutes or, in the case of some advanced practices, even 2.5 hours.
In most schools, during each posture attention is directed to the breath—to the deep, inout, rhythmic sensation—and awareness is brought to the area of the body that is being stretched or strengthened. Though poses may be held for a few seconds to a few minutes, the body can also be in constant dynamic motion. Muscles relax and loosen, changing the shape of the pose, and the in and out breath moves in rhythm with the body. The practitioner simply observes the physical or psychical sensations and emotions arising while suspending judgment. The asanas are interspersed with brief moments of relaxation during which the practitioner attempts to redirect or maintain an inward focus.
In postures used specifically for meditation, for example in Kundalini yoga, the spine is kept straight and the practitioner can be seated in a chair with the feet flat on the floor or seated in a cross-legged posture, and specific directions are given regarding the positioning of the arms, hands, and eyes, (e.g., the palms of the hands can be pressed together with the fingers together pointing up at a 60-degree angle, and the sides of the thumbs rest on the sternum in what is called “prayer pose,” and the eyes are closed as if looking at a central point on the horizon, the “third eye,” or the notch region between the eyes). A mantra (again technique specific) may also be chanted, and/or a simple or complex breathing pattern may be employed.
Alternately, the eyes might be kept open and focused on the tip of the nose or closed and focused on the tip of the chin or top of the head, again in conjunction with any number of a wide variety of breathing patterns, and/or mantras. In Sahaja yoga, practitioners sit in a relaxed posture with hands in front, palms upward. Attention is directed to a picture placed in front with a candle lit before it. Gradually when thoughts recede, meditators close their eyes and direct their attention to the “sahasrara chakra” or top of the head. The individual sits in meditation for about 10 to 15 minutes. The amount to which the eyes are open or closed also varies; eyes may be fully open, fully closed, or half-closed.
History of Yoga
Breathing: A central focus for most yogic meditation techniques is the breathing pattern. Pranayams, or breathing exercises, involve the conscious regulation of rhythmic breathing patterns, where some or all of the inspiration, breath retention, expiration, and breath out phases are regulated according to specific ratios or times. The inspiration and
expiration phases can also be regulated by breaking each breath of the inspiration and expiration into 4 parts, 8 parts, or 16 parts or only the inspiration may be broken while the expiration remains unbroken. In addition, a breath pattern may be employed selectively through either the left or right nostril (or a sequential combination of both), or specific combinations of the nose and mouth. A wide variety of broken breath patterns have been discovered that have varying effects. Some techniques may also require holding attention on the imagined flow of energy along the spinal column collaterally with the breathing rhythm, on the sensation of inhaled air touching and passing through the nasal passage, on other parts of the body, or on a mantra.
In Hatha yoga, various patterns of respiration are closely coordinated with the body in either a static posture or with movement. There are many pranayama techniques described in Hatha yoga texts; however, the practice of pranayama in this tradition has four primary objectives: (1) a stepwise reduction in breathing frequency, (2) attainment of a 1:2 ratio for the duration of inspiration and expiration respectively, (3) holding the breath for a period at the end of inspiration that lasts twice the length of expiration, i.e., a 1:4 ratio between inhalation and retention, and (4) mental concentration on breathing. The four objectives are united in the achievement of a single purpose, namely, the slowing down of respiration to achieve an immediate intensification of consciousness through the elimination of external stimuli.
Practices such as Sudarshan Kriya Yoga involve rhythmic breathing at different rates following ujjayi pranayama (long and deep breaths with constriction at the base of throat) and bhastrika (fast and forceful breaths through the nose along with arm movements). Other practices, such as Iyengar Yoga, instruct the practitioner to breath through the nostrils only while performing the asanas. Some varieties of pranayama require the practitioner to inhale and exhale through one nostril selectively, a practice called unilateral forced nostril breathing.
These breathing exercises are often practiced in combination with different postural locks (bandhas). Bandhas are restrictive positions or muscle maneuvres that exercise certain parts of the body. The most common of these are the abdominal lift (uddiyana bandha), the root lock (mula bandha), and the chin lock (jalandhara bandha).
In Kundalini yoga, there are hundreds of different breathing patterns, each having unique and specific benefits and effects. In “Sodarshan Chakra Kriya,” considered one of the most powerful pranayama meditation techniques in Kundalini yoga, a unilateral forced nostril breathing pattern is employed selectively with inspiration through the left nostril, with breath retention, and with selective expiration through the right nostril. During the breath retention phase the abdomen is pumped in and out 48 times and a three-part mantra is mentally repeated 16 times in phase with the abdominal pumping (one repetition of the three-part mantra with three pumps), and the eyes are open and focused on the tip of the nose. As the technique is mastered, the rate of respiration is eventually reduced to less than one breath per minute and practiced for a maximum of 2 hours and 31 minutes.
History of Yoga
Attention and its object: Inherent in the practice of Yoga is an effortful progression toward increased concentration, or, more precisely, toward entering a state in which the mind is highly stable and still, consciously and purposely focused, and ordinary thoughts are suspended, and the meditator is more aware of the present moment (samadhi). This state has been described as the complete merging of the subjective consciousness and the object of focus. Hatha yoga has been defined as gentle stretching and strengthening exercises with constant awareness of breathing and of the sensations that arise as the meditator assumes various postures. By manipulating the body and making minute, detailed adjustments to perfect each posture, a person develops “one-pointed” concentration and ceases to become distracted by extraneous thoughts.
One Hatha yoga technique, Shavasana, or corpse pose, involves lying on the back, with legs resting on the floor slightly apart, arms at the sides, palms facing up, and eyes closed. This seemingly simple pose is actually one of the most demanding to perfect because of the practitioner’s need to achieve absolute stillness and total concentration as well as control over
the breath. If drowsiness occurs, practitioners are told to increase the depth of their breathing. If the mind is restless, attention to the breathing cycle or other bodily sensations is encouraged. The goal is to rest in a state of relaxation, yet be aware of raw, sensory information and to let go of any reactions or judgments.
In Kundalini yoga, one complex meditation technique called “Gan Puttee Kriya”, with multiple aspects of focus, is said to help eliminate negative thoughts, “psychic scarring,” and acute stress. The practitioner sits with a straight spine, either on the floor or in a chair. The backs of the hands are resting on the knees with the palms facing upward. The eyes are open only one-tenth of the way, but looking straight ahead into the darkness, not the light below.
The practitioner chants consciously from the heart center in a natural, relaxed manner at a rate of one sound per second. The practitioner begins by chanting “SA” (the A sounding like “ah”), and touching the thumbtips and index fingertips together quickly and simultaneously then chanting “TA” and touching the thumbtips to the middle fingertips, then chanting “NA” and touching the thumbtips to the ring fingertips, then chanting “MA” and touching the thumbtips to the little fingertips, then chanting “RA” and touching the thumbtips and index fingertips, then chanting “MA” and touching the thumbtips to the middle fingertips, then chanting “DA” and touching the thumbtips to the ring fingertips, then chanting “SA” and touching the thumbtips to the little fingertips, then chanting “SA” and touching the thumbtips and index fingertips, then chanting “SAY” (like the word “say”) and touching the thumbtips to the middle fingertips, then chanting “SO” and touching the thumbtips to the ring fingertips, then chanting “HUNG” and touching the thumbtips to the little fingertips. The thumbtips and fingers touch with about 2 to 3 pounds of pressure with each connection which supposedly helps to consolidate a circuit created by each thumb-finger link. The techniques can be practiced for 11 minutes (or less) to a maximum of 31 minutes. When finished, the practitioner remains in the sitting posture and inhales and holds the breath for 20 to 30 seconds while shaking and moving every part of the body vigorously, with the hands and fingers moving very loosely, then exhaling and repeating this two additional times, immediately followed by opening the eyes and focusing them on the tip of the nose and breathing slowly through the nose for one minute.
Spirituality and belief: Yoga is a science and philosophy of the human mind and body; it is a way of life, moral as well as practical. Yoga predates all formal religions, and
perhaps for this reason, the practice of Yoga does not presuppose an individual’s commitment to a particular philosophical or religious system.
Training: The ethical principles of Yoga describe the essential attitudes and values that are needed to undertake the safe practice of Yoga. The physical practice of Yoga focuses on the development of the strength, flexibility, and endurance of the body, strengthening of the respiratory and nervous systems, development of the glandular system, and increasing the ability to concentrate. In its complete form, Yoga combines rigorous physical training with meditation practices, breathing, and sound/mantra techniques that lead to a mastery of the body, mind, and consciousness. Both ancient commentaries on Yoga and more modern books of instruction stress the importance of learning under the guidance of an experienced teacher, Guru or Master. However, some Yoga techniques, especially asanas, pranayams, and meditation techniques, have been described and illustrated in books and videos produced for the purpose of self-study. In terms of specific training requirements, it is recommended that Yoga exercises be practiced daily, preferably in the morning, and on an empty stomach.
Exercises can last from 15 minutes to several hours and it can take several years of consistent practice before a practitioner is able to practice properly the more demanding asanas and meditation techniques.
Criteria of successful meditation practice: The ideal instruction in and assessment of Yoga techniques comes from a Guru or Master. Nevertheless, as books and video instruction are available, it can be assumed that the practitioner is able, to varying degrees, to assess the correctness of at least some asanas, pranayams, and a wide variety of meditation techniques.
Yoga is ultimately a tradition of spiritual self-discipline and practice for the pursuit of enlightenment. Like Vipassana and Zen Buddhism, the success of meditation practice is judged on the basis of the practitioner achieving this state of enlightenment or other intermediate psychological or spiritual states.
For example, the central experience achieved through Sahaja yoga meditation is a state called “thoughtless awareness” or “mental silence in which the meditator is alert and aware but is free of any unnecessary mental activity. The state of thoughtless awareness is usually accompanied by emotionally positive experiences of bliss. In general, the outcome of the meditative process is associated with a sense of relaxation and positive mood and a feeling of benevolence toward oneself and others.
As Yoga also involves exercises to strengthen the body and voluntarily control different aspects of breathing, success in these techniques can be evaluated against the standards for practice (e.g., achieving a 1:4:2 ratio in inhalation, retention, and exhalation), or developing the ability to reduce the rate of respiration to one breath per minute for 1 or 2 hours. Successful practice can also be determined by a subjective and objective evaluation of the achievement of some of the reported health benefits.
Recommended:
This report is based on research conducted by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center (EPC) under contract to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Rockville, MD (Contract No. 290-02-0023). The findings and conclusions in this document are those of the author(s), who are responsible for its contents, and do not necessarily represent the views of AHRQ. No statement in this report should be construed as an official position of AHRQ or of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The information in this report is intended to help clinicians, employers, policymakers, and others make informed decisions about the provision of health care services. This report is intended as a
reference and not as a substitute for clinical judgment
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